What establishes the electrochemical gradient across a membrane to provide energy for ATP production?

A. The chloroplast's electron transport system provides the ions.


B Hydrogen ions naturally collect on the outside of the organelle membrane.


C Hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane by carrier proteins.


D. All of the choices establish the electrochemical gradient.What establishes the electrochemical gradient across a membrane to provide energy for ATP production?
Hydrogen ions are pumped across the membrane during electron transport.

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